shadetreeinc.com – The presidency of Andrew Johnson was marked by political turmoil, deep national divisions, and a fierce battle with Congress that would leave a lasting mark on American history. Johnson, who ascended to the presidency after the tragic assassination of Abraham Lincoln, quickly became one of the most controversial figures in American politics. His efforts to steer the country through the difficult period of Reconstruction and his clashes with the Radical Republicans would lead to his impeachment — the first time in American history a president faced such a trial. However, despite his impeachment, Johnson survived the political storm and remained in office until the end of his term.
This article delves into the turbulent tenure of Andrew Johnson, exploring his early political career, his ascension to the presidency, his clash with Congress, and his impeachment, along with the long-term legacy of his presidency.
The Rise of Andrew Johnson
Early Life and Political Beginnings
Born on December 29, 1808, in Raleigh, North Carolina, Andrew Johnson came from humble beginnings. His family was poor, and his father died when he was just four years old, leaving his mother to raise him. Johnson had little formal education, but he was a determined self-learner who taught himself how to read and write. As a young man, Johnson worked as a tailor, and his skills in this trade eventually led him to become politically active.
Johnson entered politics as a Democrat in Tennessee, and his early political career was rooted in his commitment to representing the working class. He served as an alderman, mayor, state senator, and eventually governor of Tennessee. His strong support for the common man, particularly his advocacy for the rights of laborers, earned him recognition as a champion of the working class.
Military Governor and Unionist Stance
As the country was plunged into the Civil War in 1861, Johnson’s political career took a pivotal turn. Though he was a Southern Democrat, he was a staunch Unionist. Unlike many of his peers in Tennessee, Johnson opposed secession and supported the federal government’s efforts to preserve the Union. His vocal opposition to the Confederacy led to his appointment as Military Governor of Tennessee by President Abraham Lincoln in 1862.
In this role, Johnson worked to re-establish Union control over the Southern states and protect the rights of Unionists living in the South. He earned praise for his efforts, particularly his commitment to preserving the Union and ensuring that the South remained loyal to the United States. His dedication to the Union, even as a Southern Democrat, set the stage for his eventual rise to the presidency.
Ascension to the Presidency
Lincoln’s Assassination and Johnson’s Assumption of Power
The assassination of Abraham Lincoln on April 14, 1865, sent shockwaves throughout the nation. With the country reeling from the end of the Civil War and the challenges of rebuilding the nation, the burden of leadership fell to Vice President Andrew Johnson. Johnson’s assumption of the presidency at such a critical juncture would prove to be a pivotal moment in American history.
At the time of his ascension, the South had been devastated by the war, and the country was in the midst of a complicated and fraught process of Reconstruction. Johnson’s vision for Reconstruction was rooted in his belief in states’ rights and the restoration of Southern autonomy. This belief would soon clash with the more radical elements of the Republican Party in Congress, leading to a political struggle that would shape his presidency.
Johnson’s Vision for Reconstruction
Johnson’s approach to Reconstruction was in stark contrast to the ideas held by Radical Republicans. His plan for re-admitting the Southern states into the Union was relatively lenient. He believed that the Southern states had never legally left the Union and that they should be quickly reintegrated without significant punishment. Johnson’s Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction issued in May 1865 offered pardons to most former Confederates who swore allegiance to the Union. Additionally, Johnson allowed Southern states to establish new governments, provided they swore allegiance to the Union and voided secession ordinances.
However, Johnson’s plan lacked provisions for guaranteeing the civil rights of freed African Americans. This omission proved to be a major point of contention, especially with the Radical Republicans, who were committed to securing rights for African Americans and ensuring that the South could not return to its pre-war system of racial inequality.
Conflict with Congress
Radical Republicans vs. Johnson
As Johnson’s lenient policies unfolded, Congress — particularly the Radical Republicans — became increasingly frustrated with the president’s approach. The Radical Republicans were determined to reshape the South and ensure full civil rights for African Americans. They wanted to impose stricter terms on Southern states and prevent former Confederates from regaining political power.
The Black Codes, which were enacted in the South after the war to limit the freedoms of African Americans, particularly alarmed the Radical Republicans. They saw Johnson’s policies as enabling the South to maintain a system of racial inequality. Moreover, Johnson’s failure to push for full civil rights for African Americans alienated Congress and created a political rift that would define the remainder of his presidency.
In 1866, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which granted citizenship and equal protection under the laws to African Americans. Johnson vetoed the bill, arguing that it infringed on the rights of states. However, Congress overrode the veto, marking the first time in U.S. history that Congress passed a major piece of legislation over a presidential veto.
The Fourteenth Amendment
In response to Johnson’s opposition to civil rights legislation, Congress pushed forward with the Fourteenth Amendment, which was intended to guarantee equal protection under the law and ensure that no state could deny citizenship to anyone born in the United States, regardless of race. Johnson, who opposed the amendment on the grounds that it represented an overreach of federal power, campaigned against it. Despite his efforts, the amendment passed Congress and was ratified in 1868.
The Fourteenth Amendment became a cornerstone of the nation’s legal foundation and further illustrated the rift between the president and Congress, as well as Johnson’s increasingly isolated political position.
The Military Reconstruction Act
In 1867, Congress passed the Military Reconstruction Act, which effectively nullified Johnson’s policies. The law divided the South into military districts, placing them under the authority of Union generals. The act required Southern states to rewrite their constitutions, grant African American men the right to vote, and ratify the Fourteenth Amendment in order to be readmitted into the Union.
Johnson vehemently opposed the Military Reconstruction Act, viewing it as an unconstitutional and unnecessary intervention into the governance of the Southern states. Once again, he vetoed the bill, but Congress overrode his veto. This marked a significant moment in American history, as Congress asserted its authority over the Reconstruction process and further undermined Johnson’s power.
The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson
The Tenure of Office Act and Johnson’s Defiance
As Congress took increasingly aggressive steps to control Reconstruction, tensions with the president reached a boiling point. In 1867, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act, which was designed to restrict the president’s ability to remove certain officeholders, including those appointed by Lincoln. The law required Johnson to obtain Senate approval before dismissing any cabinet members.
Johnson, however, believed that the law was unconstitutional and that it infringed upon his authority as president. In February 1868, he dismissed Edwin M. Stanton, the Secretary of War, who was a staunch supporter of Congressional Reconstruction. Johnson’s defiance of the Tenure of Office Act gave Congress the grounds they needed to initiate impeachment proceedings.
The Impeachment Trial
The House of Representatives quickly passed articles of impeachment, accusing Johnson of violating the Tenure of Office Act and attempting to undermine the authority of Congress. The case moved to the Senate, where a trial was held to determine whether Johnson should be removed from office. The Senate was divided, with many moderates and conservative Republicans opposed to impeachment, while the Radical Republicans pushed for Johnson’s removal.
In May 1868, the Senate voted on the articles of impeachment. 35 senators voted to convict Johnson, while 19 voted to acquit. Johnson narrowly avoided conviction, falling one vote short of the two-thirds majority required for removal. As a result, Johnson remained in office, but his authority had been greatly diminished.
Legacy of the Impeachment
The impeachment of Andrew Johnson marked a pivotal moment in American political history. While Johnson was acquitted, the impeachment process underscored the growing power of Congress relative to the presidency. The case also set a precedent for the future use of impeachment as a tool of political conflict.
The End of Johnson’s Presidency
Although Johnson survived impeachment, his political influence was shattered. His policies were largely ignored by Congress, and he struggled to gain support for his agenda. In 1868, Johnson chose not to seek re-election, and he left the White House at the end of his term in 1869.
Johnson’s legacy is a complex and controversial one. He is often remembered for his fierce commitment to states’ rights and his opposition to the Radical Republicans’ vision for Reconstruction. His failure to address the civil rights of African Americans, his repeated clashes with Congress, and his impeachment trial have cemented his place as one of the most controversial presidents in American history.
While Andrew Johnson may have survived impeachment, his presidency remains a testament to the power struggles that defined the Reconstruction era, as well as the deep divisions within the nation in the aftermath of the Civil War.
Conclusion
Andrew Johnson’s presidency was a period of immense political and social upheaval. His commitment to restoring the Southern states with minimal intervention, his opposition to civil rights for African Americans, and his defiant stance against Congress led to his impeachment and eventual political downfall. While he survived the impeachment trial, his time in office was marked by conflict and controversy, leaving a legacy that continues to be debated by historians and political analysts. Ultimately, Johnson’s tenure as president is a reminder of the challenges and struggles faced by the nation as it sought to rebuild and redefine itself after the Civil War.